CHALLENGES CONFRONTING FEMALE INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETIC
DIRECTORS OF NCAA MEMBER INSTITUTIONS BY DIVISION
This study examined the major challenges confronting
female intercollegiate athletic directors and directors of women's
intercollegiate athletics programs of NCAA member institutions. A 34-item
questionnaire was mailed to 169 female intercollegiate athletic directors and
directors of women's intercollegiate athletics programs. Of the 169 directors
contacted, 85 (50.3%) returned the questionnaire in its completed form. The
findings indicated that budget/funding issues and personnel issues had the
single highest number of responses across the total sample. Nearly three fourths
of the responses (70.3%) from Division I directors were associated with
budget/fundraising, Title IX (gender/pay equity), and inadequate facilities. For
Division II, over half (53.5%) of the responses were associated with issues of
budgeting/funding, personnel and dealing with the good ole' boys network. Of the
77 responses in Division III, slightly over half (53.5%) were associated with
personnel and budgeting issues. The findings are far from conclusive, however
they do have implications for: ( 1)
the practice of intercollegiate athletic administration, ( 2)
undergraduate and graduate programs and courses in sport management and sport
studies, and ( 3)
the development of future research in the new and emerging field of sport
management.
Since the 1970s, women have gained an increasing share
of administrative positions in intercollegiate athletics (Suggs, 2000). It was
during the 1970s when the first female intercollegiate athletic director, Betty
Kruczek was hired at Fitchburg State College (MA). Mary A. Hill was hired during
the early 1980s as athletic director of San Diego State (CA). Other female
pioneers of athletic administration included Judy Sweet, who became the first
female to serve as President of the NCAA from 1991-93, and Barbara Hedges, who
became the first female to serve as President of the National Associate of
Collegiate Directors of Athletics (NACDA) (Killy, 1996).
By 1995, women held 35 percent of the
athletic-administration positions at NCAA member institutions (Suggs, 2000).
Such positions were classified as athletic directors, associate athletic
directors, senior woman administrators (SWAs), business managers, faculty
athletic representatives, assistant athletic directors, compliance coordinators,
academic advisors, graduate assistants, and interns. During the 1999-2000
academic year for member institutions of the NCAA, the positions were made up of
19,124 individuals (Suggs, 2000). Of this number of individuals, 995 were
athletic directors. The majority of the director positions were filled by males
(n=825 or 82.9%) and the remaining number (n= 170 or 17.1%) were females (Suggs,
2000).
During a most recent analysis it was found that there
were 27 female athletic directors of NCAA Division I, 41 in Division II, and 108
in Division III (Acosta & Carpenter, 2002). It was also reported that NCAA
Division In programs are most likely to have a female head administrator (27.6%)
while Division I programs are the least likely (8.4%) (Acosta & Carpenter,
2002). These findings raise the question of why so few women are represented as
athletic directors in the filed of intercollegiate athletics today.
Despite the increasing numbers of women in athletic
administrative positions, the aforementioned statistics have indicated that
women are definitely underrepresented in one of the most powerful positions in
intercollegiate athletics--the athletic directors' position.
As of 2002, there were 885 directors of athletics of
NCAA member institutions (http://www.ncaa.org/about/div_criteria.html).
Of this number, 297 (33.6%) were directors of Division I, 230, (26.0%) were
directors of Division II member institutions, and 357 (40.3%) were directors of
Division III member institutions (http://www.ncaa.org/about/div_criteria.html).
Purpose and Significance of this Study
Prior to this investigation, the researchers found no
scientific studies which identified challenges confronting female
intercollegiate athletic directors. Therefore, the primary objective of this
investigation was to obtain empirical evidence from the existing population of
female intercollegiate athletic directors regarding key challenges that were
encountered as administrators of their current position. This investigation is
important for strengthening the theoretical knowledge base for those who are
currently studying in sport management or related degree programs as well as for
those who are currently serving as intercollegiate athletic administrators. The
primary purpose of this study was to identify major challenges confronting
female intercollegiate athletic directors and directors of women's
intercollegiate athletic programs of NCAA member institutions. A secondary
purpose was to describe those challenges that were unique to the directors when
classified by NCAA divisional status as Division I, Division II, and Division
III.
Review of Literature
Overall, it was reported in the literature that the
number of women in the workplace has significantly increased since the 1970s;
however, the advancement of women in management positions has not kept such
pace. According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (1993,p. 32) women made up
47.8 percent of a loosely defined demographic category of executives, top-level
and middle-level mangers.
Nearly two decades ago Rosenfield (1988) examined work
histories of more than 5,000 women from the National Longitudinal Surveys.
According to the review, four challenges were identified for women who aspired
to become managers. First, there was competition for a management position. This
view implied that there were more qualified individuals (including males and
females) than management positions available. Second, women were confronted with
family obligations, such as getting married, having children, and having the
desire to spend more time with the family. The third obstacle was being a woman.
According to this view, there are perceptions that there are certain traits and
behaviors exhibited by women that are not conducive in being promoted as
managers or executives. The final factor was that women were stereotyped as not
wiling to give enough time and effort needed to be in a management position.
Building on the works of Rosenfield, Wentling (1996)
reported four obstacles that hindered women's careers as managers. First, there
were bosses who did not guide or encourage career progression of women managers.
This view implied that bosses were inadequate, insecure and unable to provide
constructive feedback to women employees in guiding their career progression.
Gender discrimination was perceived as the second obstacle hindering the career
development of women managers. Based on the findings, many of the female
employees had male bosses who had difficulties dealing with females of whom
wanted to become managers. A third barrier confronting females was the lack of
political savvy.
In another study, Catalyst (1994) reported the most
common obstacles of female managers were: ( 1)
stereotyping and preconceptions about suitability for a leadership position; ( 2)
not being a part of the informal network of communication; (
3)
little or no effective managing training for female employees; (
4)
top-level managers not being held accountable for developing and advancing
women; ( 5)
lack of an adequate compensation system; ( 6)
little or no flexibility in work schedules; and ( 7)
a lack of programs that enable employees to balance work and non-work
activities.
Challenges of female intercollegiate athletic directors
have been the topic of a few studies. A study conducted by Sisley (1975)
identified several challenges facing female athletic directors. The author
postulated that success would be based on the ability to use the following: a)
understanding the needs of the student-athletes, b) emphasizing the
participants' interests, c) staffing with quality personnel, d) setting
priorities, e) maintaining effective channels of communication, and f)
understanding policies governing the program. Sisley (1975) emphasized that
women should set their own paths rather than follow in the footsteps of men.
These challenges identified over 25 years ago may not be valid today.
The lack of studies exploring challenges confronting
females as intercollegiate athletic directors has served as stimuli for the
present investigation. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate
challenges or anything that the female directors perceived to restrain their
progress in the workplace. The specific research question guiding the
investigation was "What are the major challenges confronting you in the
workplace as an intercollegiate athletic director?"
Method
Qualitative Research Method
Given the exploratory nature of this research effort a
qualitative research design was used to fulfill the objectives of this
investigation. According to Miles and Huberman (1994) and Morse and Field
(1995), one of the uses of qualitative research is to investigate the phenomena
of which very little is known. Specifically the lack of database research that
explains challenges confronting females in their roles as athletic directors
have served as stimuli for the present investigation. Qualitative research
refers to "an inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem, based
on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed
views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting" (Creswell, 1994).
Qualitative research has been recognized as a powerful
tool for collecting data in order to determine patterns of meaning or behavior
that will lead to a greater understanding of a phenomenon under study (Miles
& Huberman, 1994). This type of research also analyzes the similarities of
all participants' viewpoints and then describes the levels of importance of such
viewpoints. Specifically, this investigation was focused on the analysis of the
written responses of 85 female athletic directors' viewpoint of the major
challenges confronting them in the workplace.
Based on the recommendations of Glaser and Strauss
(1967); Miles and Huberman (1994) and Creswell (1994) qualitative research is
consistent in providing meaning to an open-ended question like the one used in
this investigation: What are some of the greatest challenges that you are
confronted with during your career as an intercollegiate athletic director?
Study Population and Sample
The study population consisted of all females who were
identified as directors of intercollegiate athletics or directors of women's
athletics of all NCAA member institutions. The selection of the study informants
was based on purposive sampling. Purposive sampling refers to a type of
nonprobability sampling in which the researcher's knowledge of the population
and its elements is used to handpick the units to be included in the sample
(Babbie, 2001). Surveying the entire population was not necessary from a
statistical viewpoint, however, it was the researchers goal to provide all of
the directors an opportunity to participate in this cross-sectional exploratory
descriptive investigation. In addition, the mail survey could be conducted
without undue cost or time constraints.
Data Collection Procedures
Following institutional review board approval at each of
the ten universities, a request was made to the NCAA to send a list of all
female directors of athletics and directors of women's athletics. Upon receiving
the list from the NCAA, the survey instrument was mailed to 169 female directors
of athletics and directors of women's athletics. Questionnaire packets were
mailed directly to each of the potential athletic directors. Each survey packet
included a cover letter, a questionnaire and a self-addressed stamped envelope
for returning the questionnaire in its completed form. In the cover letter each
participant was informed of the purpose of the study and was assured
confidentiality by the researchers. Consent to participate was implied when each
of the directors returned the questionnaire in its completed form. The athletic
directors were also informed of the due date for returning the questionnaire in
its completed form. Surveys of usable forms were received from 85 of the
administrators, representing an overall response rate of 50.3%.
Demographic Characteristics of the Informants
Eighty five of the directors (50.3%) returned the
questionnaire in its completed form. Respondents ranged in age from 29 to 62
within a mean age 46.2 and median age of 46. Nearly two thirds (64.2%) of the
informants were between 40 - 50 years of age. For analysis, marital status was
collapsed into four categories: (a) never married; (b) currently married
(39.7%); currently divorced (9.6%) and currently separated (3.6%). Racially, the
informants were primarily White-Americans (95.0%) with less than five percent of
minority status. Nearly all of the informants (79.4%) worked 50 - 79 hours per
week. Overall, the survey showed they were well educated - more than two thirds
(69.8%) had masters degree, one fourth (24.1%) held a doctorate; and 3.6% held a
bachelors degree. Nearly a fourth (23.3%) reported a salary between $50,000 and
$59,999; however less than ten percent (7.7%) earned $100,000 or more.
Instrumentation
Data were obtained from the female athletic directors
using a two-part self-reported questionnaire. Part I consisted of five
open-ended questions requiring the participants to write specific answers about
challenges that confronted them in the roles as a director of intercollegiate
athletics. Part II of the instrument included 29 questions requiring each female
athletic director to provide information about personnel, educational, and
professional demographic characteristics. Of the 29 questions, eight were
forced-choice questions requiring each informant to check (☑) the most
appropriate response for her respective demographic characteristics. The
remaining 21 were open-ended questions where each participant was required to
write specific answers about her demographic characteristics.
Data Analysis Procedures
The open-ended responses obtained in this investigation
were question or content analyzed manually (Morse & Fields 1995). The
objective of content analysis is to systematically examine the content of
communications--in this sense, written responses to an open-ended question. All
responses to the open-ended question were recorded verbatim, coded and analyzed
in a systematic way until a data saturation point was reached (Strauss &
Corbin, 1990). Data saturation happens when the information being shared by the
investigators become repetitive (Morse, 1994).
Three phases of the content analysis technique were
employed to analyze data for this investigation. During Phase I, the researchers
collectively retrieved the raw data from the questionnaire in a systematic
manner. All written responses submitted by the participating directors were
recorded verbatim for coding and analysis. Shown in Figure 1 is an example of
the form used when retrieving the raw data from the questionnaire for this
research investigation. Data were retrieved in a systematic manner; first by
listing an identification number of each of the directors (Column 1), secondly
by listing the divisional level of the member institutions DI, DII, or DIII
(Column 2), thirdly by providing space for labeling each of the responses as an
emergent theme (Column 3), and fourth by listing each of the responses verbatim
made each of the directors (Column 4). Notes were also written on the margins as
needed by the investigators.
During Phase 2 the responses were clustered into
meaningful patterns. After four consecutive weeks, 150 responses were extracted
from the open-ended research question: What are some of the greatest challenges
that you have been confronted with during your career as an intercollegiate
athletic director? Independently the two researchers reviewed each of the 150
responses line by line for significant words, phrases, or sentences that could
help to formulate categories or patterns of meanings for the responses. Key
words and phrases were coded with numbers of the written responses (Miles &
Huberman, 1994). Collectively, the researchers met once per week to discuss and
compare the line by line analysis of their independent analysis. When the
researchers disagreed on how a response was to be categorized, they consulted
with cadre of faculty who were considered experts in such fields. This process
of analysis was continued until a saturation point was reached between the
researcher and eleven clusters of responses that inductively emerged from the
process.
Initially, during Phase 3, the researchers independently
attempted to identify the cluster of responses by emergent domains or emergent
themes. This procedure was employed to construct meaningful conceptual patterns
of a cluster of responses (Morse & Field, 1995; Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Subsequently and collectively after three weeks of constantly comparing the
responses, 13 emergent domains or emergent themes were identified for 150 or
83.5% of the 155 responses. Shown in Figure 2 the themes were identified as
budget/funding issues, personnel issues, Title IX/gender equity issues,
organizational & program change, inadequate facilities, lack administration
& institutional support & understanding, good ole' boys network, lack of
recognition by peers, time constraints & commitment, stereotype women in
leadership roles, lack of experience, sexism & sexist attitudes, career
development issues, and other issues. Each of the themes that emerged was posed
against the major question: What are some of the greatest challenges that you
have been confronted with during your career as an intercollegiate athletic
director?
Psychometric Analysis of the Coding Process
Reliability. Inter -- coder agreement was also conducted
within independent coders to further ascertain the degree of trustworthiness or
reliability of the data analysis procedures. Inter-observer agreement was used
to determine the degree of reliability for each of the description themes (N=13)
and written responses (N=150). Four individuals were selected and trained to
independently match each of the responses to one of the eleven themes. The
trained coders were two undergraduate (senior status) sport management majors
and two full time sport management faculty. Inter-observer reliability was
determined by concurrent data analysis of the percentage of agreement in
matching the responses to the common domain for each pair of the four raters.
Inter-observer agreements among four raters ranged from .636 to .829. Agreements
between raters A and B were .664; A and C .744; and A and D .636, B and C .752;
B and D .686, and C and D .829. Coefficients of .600 to .700 are acceptable for
exploratory use of research measurement tools in the early stages of development
as this one (Nunnally, 1978).
Face Validity. Face validity was an enhanced constant
comparison of the themes and responses by the researchers over a four-week
duration. During this process the agreement schemes dictated the necessity to
collapse two of the theme emergents into a single theme. Gender equity and
equitable pay were collapsed into a single theme and renamed Title IX
Issues.
Results
The major findings of this investigation are presented
in reference to the major research question: What are some of the greatest
challenges that you are confronted with during your career as an intercollegiate
athletic director? Shown in Tables 1 through 4 are the results of the findings
of challenges that confront females in their roles as athletic directors.
Collectively 150 challenges were extracted from the responses and clustered
among 13 emergent themes.
Descriptive statistics for the 13 themes have been
arranged in four groups of the directors of NCAA member institutions inclusive
of the total responses (N= 150) in Tables 1 through 4. Categories of the
directors were analyzed in terms of ( 1)
directors of all the responding institutions (N= 85); ( 2)
directors of NCAA Division I (N=14); ( 3)
directors of NCAA Division II (N=24); and ( 4)
directors of NCAA Division III member institutions (N= 47).
Shown in Table 1 is a summary of the themes ranked from
highest to lowest based on the number of responses made by the 85 athletic
directors of the NCAA member institutions who participated in this
investigation. The most predominant theme to emerge was budget/funding issues,
accounting for slightly more than one-fourth (27.3%) of the frequencies. The
second most prevalent theme to emerge was personnel issues, accounting for a
fifth (20.7%) of the frequencies. Issues related to Title IX, organizational and
program changes, inadequate facilities, lack of administration/institutional
support and understanding, and the good ole' boys network accounted for less
than ten percent, however, more than five percent of the frequencies each. The
remaining six themes, time constraints and commitments, stereotypes of women in
leadership roles, lack of experience issues, sexism and sexist attitudes, and
career development issues accounted for less than five percent of the
frequencies each. No themes were generated for nine (6.0%) of the responses,
including the pressure of winning in the MBB, media coverage, convincing coaches
winning does not have to be everything, teams being overmatched in conference
play, politics, presenting a positive academic image for the athletic
department, influencing administrators to view athletics as co-curricular,
problems solving -- no two alike and many at the same time -- and a never ending
supply of them, and convincing administration of academic/athletic
cooperation.
Shown in Table 2 is a summary of the themes ranked from
highest to lowest based on the number of responses made by the 14 Division I
informants of the NCAA member institutions who participated in this
investigation. Responses related to Title IX had the second highest number of
responses. Issues related to inadequate facilities and lack of
administration/institutional support and understanding accounted for more than
eleven percent of the responses each. Issues involving stereotyping accounted
for more than seven percent. Personnel issues and organizational and program
changes accounted for less than four percent of the responses each. It should be
noted that the top two themes (budgeting/funding and Title IX issues) accounted
for over half (59.2%) of the total responses of the Division I ADs. Time
constraints & commitments, the good ole' boys network, lack of recognition
by peers, lack of experience, sexism and sexist attitudes and career development
issues were not considered as major challenges confronting this sample of female
directors of NCAA Division I institutions. No themes were generated for one
(3.7%) of the responses. The response was the pressure of winning in MBB.
Shown in Table 3 is a summary of the themes ranked from
highest to lowest based on the number of responses made by the 24 Division II
female athletic directors of the NCAA member institutions who participated in
this investigation. The single most dominant theme to emerge for this group of
ADs was related to budget/funding issues. Issues related to personnel issues and
the good ole' boys network followed the single most dominant theme. The
aforementioned themes accounted for half (53.5%) of the total responses by this
group of ADs. It is further shown in the Table that less than ten percent of the
responses were solicited for each of the ten remaining themes. No themes were
solicited for three (7.0%) of the responses including media coverage, convincing
coaches winning does not have to be everything, and teams being overmatched in
conference play.
Shown in Table 4 is a summary of the themes ranked from
highest to lowest based on the number of responses made by the 47 Division III
informants of the NCAA member institutions who participated in this
investigation. Personnel issues and budget and funding issues were the two most
dominant themes to emerge from the data, accounting for slightly more than half
(52.5%) of the total responses. The themes for organizational and program
changes, time constraints & commitments, lack of
administration/institutional support and understanding and lack of recognition
by peers generated five percent or more of the total responses each. Responses
for the remaining seven themes generated less than five percent each in
reference to the total amount of responses. No themes were generated for five
(6.3%) of the responses. Five of such responses were politics, presenting a
positive academic image for the athletic department, influencing administrators
to view athletics as co-curricular, problem solving -- no two alike and many at
the same time -- and a never ending supply of them, and convincing
administration of academic/athletic cooperation.
Discussion
The purpose of the study was to identify major
challenges confronting female intercollegiate athletic directors and directors
of women intercollegiate athletic programs of NCAA member institutions. The
results of this study cannot be generalized beyond the group of directors who
participated in the study. However, the results are similar to those of previous
studies related to organizational challenges confronting females as managers in
the workplace. This investigation has provided a beginning exploration of
challenges that confront females in their roles as athletic directors of NCAA
member institutions. Of the 150 responses by the directors, nearly half (48.0%)
were associated with two dominant themes --budget/funding issues and personnel
issues.
Of 13 themes, budget/funding issues emerged as the most
predominant theme for the directors. Some examples of such responses included
"allocating insufficient resources," "unbelievably low budgets," "budget
issues," "budget constraints," etc. This finding is consistent with earlier
discussions in the literature of intercollegiate athletics. Most recently, three
Division I-A member institutions have decided to "announce cutbacks in sports"
(Suggs, 2003, p. A41). California State University at Fresno, West Virginia
University and the University of Toledo, each announced they were cutting to
NCAA minimum requirements of 16 teams to save money and meet gender equity
goals. While a handful of programs make money, many rely on student fees,
taxpayer funds, and alumni contributions (Girard, 1998). According to Blum
(1994), many athletic departments are looking to campus fundraising offices for
assistance in order to get their departments out of debt. Dr. Roy Meninger
postulates that asking for money is not easy and therefore fundraising can be a
very painful process (Mai, 1991). Meninger further states that fundraising can
be "an affront to one's dignity" and can feel like begging. He postulates that
keeping one's integrity is challenging because fundraising is selling, and
honesty and sincerity can be covered in a "bit of a con job" (Mai, 1991).
The issue of budgeting could also be consistent with the
issue of Title IX (gender/pay equity), which emerged as the theme with the third
highest number of responses. Some of the responses involving Title IX issues
include "gender equity attitudes," "Title IX issues," "gender discrimination,"
and "sexism in sport." Title IX requires that colleges and universities provide
equal opportunities for members of each sex. This might include scholarships,
grants-in-aid, and participation. According to Shaw (1995), institutions who are
forced with budget constraints are trying to find ways to comply with Title IX
without having to resort to dropping some women's (and some men's) programs.
The challenge of complying with Title IX can also raise
disharmony between conflicting parties with regard to finding a balance between
male and female programs. The decisions that are made to add one program and
drop another can inevitably result in divisive points of view from coaches and
other administrators. These decisions can also result in lawsuits. Decisions to
drop men's teams to meet compliance with Title IX has ignited lawsuits by the
men's swimming team at the University of California in Los Angeles (UCLA) in
1998, and by the men's wrestling team at California State at Bakersfield (CSUB)
in 1999 (Lynch, 2001).
Personnel issues emerged as the second most predominant
theme for the directors. Examples of the responses to emerge as personnel issues
were "work overload (have no assistant AD)," "personnel hiring and firing,"
"dealing with personnel," "personnel issues," and "staffing issues (lack
thereof)." The findings supported by previous research have shown that females
in sport leadership tend to leave their positions at a faster rate than their
male counterparts (Acosta & Carpenter, 1994; 1996). Other explanations for
personnel challenges could be responsibility for people under an administrator's
leadership, employee issues such as keeping good employees, or the lack of
personnel. The leadership of people, conducting performance appraisals and other
responsibilities for subordinates are potential stressors for an administrator
(Nelson & Quick, 1985). There is a significant relationship between stress
and time issues, personnel concerns, and program success (Martin, Kelley &
Dias, 1999). The authors of this study postulated that stress could be
alleviated for those individuals: high in hardiness, with good social support
and with fewer athletic directing issues.
It has been noted in recent literature that 85 percent
of male athletic directors might want to hire a female and advertise for one,
but instead will seek the best male candidate and determine what it would take
to get him there. (Carpenter in Suggs, 1998 p. 21). Mary Alice Hill, the former
athletic director at San Diego State, recalled "…there were constant battles
with vice presidents who didn't want me hired," (p. 2C). Merrily Dean Baker, who
was athletic director at Michigan State University, recalled having a "difficult
working relationship with then-football coach George Perles… he didn't want to
work with a woman, and he made no secret about it" (Blauvelt, 1996 p. 2C).
It is also a personnel challenge for a director to
retain good employees. Littman (2000), suggested that a good boss would hang on
to seasoned employees rather than spend time and money on perusing new resumes.
It is up to the administrator to create an environment that is favorable to
personnel and that can be a formidable task. In addition, many administrators
reported working greater than 50 hours per week which may be prompted and
necessary due to a shortage of personnel in the department.
Conclusions
The findings of this study are far from conclusive,
however, they do have implications for ( 1)
the practice of intercollegiate athletic administration, ( 2)
undergraduate and graduate programs and courses in sport management and sport
studies, and ( 3)
the development of future research in the new and emerging field of sport
management.
In regards to the practice of intercollegiate athletic
administration, the results of this investigation have relevance for training
and developmental programs for both male and female intercollegiate athletic
administrators. For example, the findings of this investigation could be
presented at the annual National Association of Collegiate Women Athletic
Administrators (NACWAA) forum. The forum is held annually in conjunction with
the NCAA Convention at different sites in the U.S. It features educational
seminars and informative round table discussions for administrators of female
intercollegiate athletic programs. This research could also be presented at
professional conferences such as the American Alliance for Health, Physical
Education, Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD) and the North American Society for
Sport Management (NASSM). The findings of this study could be used to provide
meaningful insight to athletic directors when making decisions about recruitment
and hiring of females as athletic administrators at Division I, II, and III
member institutions.
Second, results of this investigation can likewise prove
useful for teaching students in sport management and related fields such as
recreation management, athletic administration, and physical education. Findings
from this investigation can help teachers to be more informed and sensitive
about challenges confronting athletic administrators. For example, the
challenges faced by female athletic directors could be discussed in a Gender
Issues in Sport undergraduate and/or graduate course. Students would be able to
examine and research various struggles women encounter in the sports realm.
Instructors and students would be able to discuss the stereotypical images of
women in collegiate administrative positions, problems associated with the good
ole' boys network, and other challenges and issues of gender bias that occur at
the collegiate level of sport.
Finally, this study can also serve as a road map for
future research studies. One suggestion is to replicate this investigation.
Using a longitudinal approach would be useful with data collection taking place
at different time intervals (for example, every two years). Conducting telephone
and face-to-face interviews may assist in increasing the response rate of this
type of investigation. Continuing the investigation over a 10-year period to
observe changes in challenges is also recommended. Another suggestion is to
utilize quantitative measures in future research by developing and implementing
a scale for rating and ranking the themes and responses solicited in the current
investigation. Also future investigations of challenges confronting females as
athletic directors need to examine the generalizability of the current findings
of more diverse groups when categorized by such dimensions as race and age.
The results of this investigation must be interpreted
with caution in light of several methodological limitations. One of the first
limitations was how the respondents may have interpreted the term 'challenge' in
the proposed question: What are some of the greatest challenges that you have
been confronted with during your career as an intercollegiate athletic director?
This question may have been interpreted differently by each of the responding
athletic directors. For future research, the term challenge may need to be
conveyed as 'barriers and obstacles' or as 'opportunities.'
In addition, only half (50.3%) of the athletic directors
responded by returning the questionnaire in its completed form. Having only half
of the directors to respond limits the generalizability of the findings of this
investigation. Perhaps, the remaining half might have made a stronger case for
the major findings of this investigation. Therefore, the results can only be
generalized to the directors who participated in this investigation.
A third limitation was beyond the researchers' control,
not being able to investigate the challenges related to race and ethnicity as
they relate to female athletic administrators. These aspects of diversity are
important and future research efforts should be made to address them. While this
study cannot be generalized beyond the sample of directors who participated in
this investigation, it adds to the literature on the progress of women in
intercollegiate athletic administration.
Despite such limitations, the findings from this
investigation are valuable to undergraduate and graduate degree programs who
train future athletic administrators. Major findings from this initial study can
be used as base line data for future research. This information may also be a
useful tool for those who are currently serving as intercollegiate athletic
directors or who are currently pursuing a career in athletic administration.
In conclusion, this qualitative investigation was an
attempt to analyze challenges confronting female intercollegiate athletic
directors of NCAA member institutions. Findings from this investigation offer
women in managerial roles knowledge they can use in order to enhance their
skills and roles as an athletic director. This investigation may assist other
female intercollegiate athletic directors in comprehending challenges other
female athletic directors have encountered. Challenges of negativity may prevent
women from maintaining their leadership positions and management roles.
Comprehension of challenges female intercollegiate athletic directors are faced
with may expand the development and advancement of women in managerial roles in
intercollegiate athletics.
Table 1 Frequencies of Frequencies of Major Challenges for
Female Intercollegiate Athletic Directors of NCAA Divisions I, II, and III
Member Institutions (N = 150 responses by 85 Directors) Legend for Chart:
A - Rank
B - Emergent Theme
C - N=150
D - %
A B C D
1 Budget/Funding Issues 41 27.3%
2 Personnel Issues 31 20.7%
3 Title IX/Gender Equity Issues 10 6.7%
4 Organizational and Program Changes 9 6.0%
5 Inadequate Facilities 9 6.0%
6 Lack Administration/Institutional
Support & Understanding 9 6.0%
7 Good Ole' Boys Network 8 5.3%
8 Lack Recognition by Peers 6 4.0%
9 Time Constraints & Commitments 5 3.3%
10 Stereotype Women in Leadership Roles 4 2.7%
11 Lack Experience 4 2.7%
12 Sexism & Sexist Attitudes 3 2.0%
13 Career Development Issues 2 1.3%
14 Other Issues 9 6.0%
Total Frequencies 150 100.0%
Responses are arranged from highest to lowest frequency. The
total N may exceed 100% CN=150) because some directors had
multiple answers whereas others had none.
Table 2 Frequencies of
Major Challenges for Female Intercollegiate Athletic Directors of NCAA Division
I Member Institutions (N= 27 responses by 14 Directors) Legend for Chart:
A - Rank
B - Emergent Theme
C - N=27
D - %
A B C D
1 Budget/Funding Issues 11 40.7%
2 Title IX/Gender Equity Issues 5 18.5%
3 Inadequate Facilities 3 11.1%
4 Lack Administration/Institutional
Support & Understanding 3 11.1%
5 Stereotype Women in Leadership Roles 2 7.4%
6 Personnel Issues 1 3.7%
7 Organizational and Program Changes 1 3.7%
8 Time Constraints & Commitments - -
9 Good Ole' Boys Network - -
10 Lack Recognition by Peers - -
11 Lack Experience - -
12 Sexism & Sexist Attitudes - -
13 Career Development Issues - -
14 Other Issues 1 3.7%
Total Frequencies 27 99.9%
Responses are arranged from highest to lowest frequency. The
total N may exceed 100% (N=27) because some directors had
multiple answers whereas others had none.
Table 3 Frequencies of
Major Challenges for Female Intercollegiate Athletic Directors of NCAA Division
II Member Institutions (N= 43 responses by 24 Directors) Legend for Chart:
A - Rank
B - Emergent Theme
C - N=43
D - %
A B C D
1 Budget/Funding Issues 10 23.3%
2 Personnel Issues 8 18.6%
3 Good Ole' Boys Network 5 11.6%
4 Inadequate Facilities 3 7.0%
5 Title IX/Gender Equity Issues 3 7.0%
6 Lack Recognition by Peers 2 4.7%
7 Organizational and Program Changes 2 4.7%
8 Lack Experience 2 4.7%
9 Lack Administration/Institutional
Support & Understanding 2 4.7%
10 Sexism & Sexist Attitudes 2 4.7%
11 Stereotype Women in Leadership Roles 1 2.3%
12 Career Development Issues - -
13 Time Constraints & Commitments - -
14 Other Issues 3 7.0%
Total Frequencies 43 100.3%
Responses are arranged from highest to lowest frequency. The
total N may exceed 100% (N=43) because some directors had
multiple answers whereas others had none.
Table 4 Frequencies of
Major Challenges for Female Intercollegiate Athletic Directors of NCAA Division
Ill Member Institutions (N= 80 responses by 47 Directors) Legend for Chart:
A - Rank
B - Emergent Theme
C - N=80
D - %
A B C D
1 Personnel Issues 22 27.5%
2 Budget/Funding Issues 20 25.0%
3 Organizational and Program Changes 6 7.5%
4 Time Constraints & Commitments 5 6.3%
5 Lack Administration/Institutional
Support & Understanding 4 5.0%
6 Lack Recognition by Peers 4 5.0%
7 Good Ole' Boys Network 3 3.8%
8 Inadequate Facilities 3 3.8%
9 Lack Experience 2 2.5%
10 Title IX/Gender Equity Issues 2 2.5%
11 Career Development Issues 2 2.5%
12 Stereotype Women in Leadership Roles 1 1.3%
13 Sexism & Sexist Attitudes 1 1.3%
14 Other Issues 5 6.3%
Total Frequencies 80 100.3%
Responses are arranged from highest to lowest frequency. The
total N may exceed 100% (N=43) because some directors had
multiple answers whereas others had none.
Figure 1 Example of
Theme Analysis of Responses for Greatest Challengers Confronting Female Athletic
Directors Legend for Chart:
A - (Column 1) Informant #
B - (Column 2) Divisional Level
C - (Column 3) Emergent Theme
D - (Column 4) Informant's Response
A B C D
31 (DI) "Funding"
"Title IX"
"Facility construction"
77 (DI) "Title IX issues"
"Financial support"
428 (DI) "Double standards that are applied to men and
women relative to style, effectiveness, etc."
694 (DI) "Ability to charge mindset that women are
important"
703 (DII) "Funding, responding to Title IX lawsuit"
"Space for expansion and facilities for new
sports"
25 (DII) "Funding"
"Title IX issues"
383 (DII) "Working with increased budgets for women's
programs"
"GE investigator working in the good old boys
network"
423 (DII) "Media coverage"
"Awarding of scholarship"
9012 (DII) "Budgeting"
"Gender equity attitudes"
40 (DIII) "Dealing with personnel issues"
"Juggling multiple responsibilities as
coach of 2 sports and AD for women"
114 (DIII) "Lack of orientation to position"
"Lack of time to do what I want
relative to the job"
268 (DIII) "Budget concerns"
Figure 2 Frequencies
of Challenges by Female Intercollegiate Athletic Directors of NCAA Division I,
II, and III Member Institutions (N=150) responses by 85 Directors Budget
Funding
Issues
27.3%
Personnel
Issues
20.7%
Title IX
Gender Equity
Issues
6.7%
Organizational
& Program
Change
6.0%
Inadequate
Facilities
6.0%
Lack
Administration
&
Institutional
Support &
Understanding
6.0%
Good Ole'
Boys Network
5.3%
Lack of
Recognition by
Peers
4.0%
Time
Constraints &
Commitment
3.3%
Stereotype
Women in
Leadership
Roles
2.7%
Lack
Experience
2.7%
Sexism &
Sexist
Attitudes
Career
Development
Issues
1.3%
Other Issues
6.0%
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~~~~~~~~
By Jerome Quarterman, Florida State University; Aimee D.
Dupreé, Mid American Athletic Conference (MAC) and Kimberly Pettaway Willis,
Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306
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